AndABSTRACTA comprehensive bacteriological analysis of 525 drinking water samples collected from railway stations, houses, rivers and lakes (surface water), tube wells and open wells was carried out using Manja`s H 2S field test, MTFT (MPN) test, TTC (Eijkman test) and MFT test. Detection efficiency of faecal coliform contamination for H 2S field test (96-97%) was comparable to MPN test and more detection level over that of MFT and TTC. Efficiency of H 2S test varies with the source and decreased with the depth of the source of water. However, the H 2S test, compared to other tests, was more suitable, reliable, inexpensive, easy to perform and useful to detect fecal contamination in drinking water within 24 h, for places where time, man and laboratory facilities are very poor. Howto cite this article:D.H. Tambekar, S.R.

1. Drinking Water Filtration Systems

Evaluation of Current Water Treatment and Distribution System Optimization to Provide Safe Drinking Water from Various Source Water Types and Conditions (Deliverable 5.2.C.1). US EPA Office of Research and Development, Washington, DC, EPA/600/F-14/353, 2014.

Gulhane and Y.S. Banginwar, 2008. Evaluation of Mofified Rapid H 2S Test for Detection of Fecal Contamination in Drinking Water from Various Sources. Research Journal of Environmental Sciences, 2: 40-45.DOI:URL:INTRODUCTIONStandard methods, which are available for detection of fecal contamination in drinking water, require trained analyst, bacteriological media and other supporting materials and facilities of microbiology Laboratory (WHO, 2002).

In 1982, KS Manja (DRDO, Gwalior, India) developed a H 2S rapid field test based on production of hydrogen sulphide by bacteria that are associated with fecal contamination. The H 2S-producing bacteria are invariably present in feces and have very strong correlation between presence of H 2S-producing bacteria and fecal pollution of water. Hence by detecting the presence of H 2S-producing bacteria in water samples, fecal pollution of such water can be deduced. This rapid fields test needs no technical staff and the cost is lower than conventional bacteriological test for detection of fecal contamination in drinking water (Genthe and Franck, 1999).The H 2S test was evaluated and reported (Sivaborvorn, 1988; Kaspar et al., 1992; Venkobachar et al., 1994; Pillai et al., 1999) favorable for detection of fecal contamination in drinking water from various source, including ground and surface water.

Various modifications of H 2S test for detection of fecal contamination at various temperatures and incubation periods indicated that the test could be used in the field without any infrastructure (Rijal et al., 2000; Mark et al., 2002; Pathak and Gopal, 2005; Hirulkar and Tambekar, 2006). Though various people tested the validity of the H 2S test with MTFT or MFT for detection of fecal contamination of drinking water, but further validation and standardization is required by WHO and APHA as an alternative method for use in (WHO, 2002).

In present study, composition of original medium was modified by substituting teepol with labolene (neutral pH) and evaluated the efficiency of this test to detect fecal contamination of drinking water from various sources.MATERIALS AND METHODSThe H 2S test was prepared by replacing teepol with bile salt in the medium (Manja et al., 2001). The H 2S medium (1 mL) was added in screw cap 30 mL bottle and sterilized at 121°C for 15 min. To each bottle, drinking water (20 mL) was inoculated for testing its bacteriological quality in duplicate. The bottles were then incubated at room temperature and 37°C for 24 to 48 h. Multiple Tube Fermentation Technique (MTFT) was performed by nine multiple tube dilution using double and single strength MacConkey medium (APHA, 1998). MFT test by using M-EC test agar (Hi-media Lab. Mumbai) and Eijkman test (detection of thermotolerant coliforms, TTC) by using Brilliant Green Bile Lactose Broth (BGLB) and indole test at 44.5°C were performed for each water sample as per standard protocol.

Drinking Water Filtration Systems

The study was carried out over a period of four months from July to October 2006 and Water samples (525) collected from railway stations (173); all railways stations of Nagpur Bhusaval division of Central railway, India; houses from Amravati City (101); surface water (river, lake etc., 88), tube well (75) and open (dug) well (88) from salinity affected villages of Amravati district of Maharashtra State (India) were analysed by each of above tests. Blacking in H 2S medium was recorded as positive test after incubation period. Only MTFT positive (polluted) water samples were further subjected for Eijkman test in BGLB and Tryptone medium at 44.5°C for 24 h and positive results were recorded as gas in BGLB and indole positive.

The sensitivity, specificity predictive values and efficiency of H 2S test were calculated as.RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONOut of 525 water samples tested, 413 were polluted by MTFT test (10 coliforms 100 mL -1), 184 by H 2S test in 24 h of incubation, 328 by H 2S test in 48 h of incubation and 151 polluted by MFT and 139 by TTC. However 106 (in 24 h) and 100 (in 48 h) water samples were safe by both H 2S and MPN test (. 2:Efficiency (accuracy) of H 2S test with water fromvarious sourcesThe efficiency of H 2S test either in 24 h or 48 h incubation when compare with standard water quality tests was varies with source of drinking water. When compared with MTFT, it was 70-99% in surface water, 60-88% in open (dug) well water, 41-77% in tube well water, 45-73 in railway station water and 60-67% in house hold water indicating good agreements between these two test for surface, open well and household water. This clearly indicated that more coliforms per 100 mL lead to more accurate H 2S test and good agreement.H 2S test indicated good agreement with TTC (95%) and MFT (66%) in household water. Higher the MPN index, higher the agreement between modified H 2S test, MFT and TTC, indicating fecal thermotolerant coliform always associated with H 2S producing microorganisms. Thus indicated that H 2S test can detect the fecal pollution efficiently and efficiency of this test was upto 99% and decreased with the depth of the water source.

Therefore the test is more reliable for surface, open well and household water where there’s direct facal contamination due to human activities.CONCLUSIONSThe H 2S test (48 h incubation) was comparable to MPN method based on presence of thermotolerant coliforms. Thus the H 2S was found to be more suitable, reliable, inexpensive, easy to perform and most useful to detect faecal contamination in drinking water within 24 to 48 h. It also proved suitable to assess of drinking water and useful in routine screening for large number of samples for places where time, man and laboratory facilities are very poor. In principle, the test does not conform to the conventional standards of bacteriological testing of water samples and cannot replaces the conventional MTFT, MFT or TTC test. However, the H 2S test is easy to perform, user-friendly, screening test, suitable for handling by untrained personnel for community participation in monitoring of rural drinking water sources and low cost rapid test, hence recommended for the routine monitoring of water for recent faecal contamination in the field or villages where technical expertise, infrastructure and incubation equipment are not readily available.REFERENCESAPHA, AWWA and WEF., 1998.

Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater. 20th Edn., American Public Health Association/American Water Works Association/Water Environment Federation, Washington, DC., USA., ISBN-13: 356, Pages: 1220.Genthe, B. Franck, 1999. A Tool for Assessing Microbial Quality in Small Community Water Supplies: An H2s Strip Test: Water Research Commission. Division of Water, Environment and Forestry Technology, CSIR, Stellenbosch, South Africa.Grant, M.A. Evaluation of a simple screening test for faecal pollution in water. Aqua, 45: 13-18.Hirulkar, N.B.

Tambekar, 2006. Suitability of the H2S test for detection of fecal contamination in drinking water at various temperatures and incubation period.

Biotechnol., 5: 1025-1028. Kaspar, P., I. Velasquez, H. Mino de Kaspar, L. Zouiek, 1992. Evaluation of simple screening test for the quality of drinking water systems. Parasitol., 43: 124-127.Manja, K.S., M.S.

Maurya and K.M. A simple field-tests for the detection of faecalpollution in drinking water. World Health Organ., 60: 797-801.Manja, K.S., R.

Sambasiva, K.V. Chandra Shekhara, K.J. Dutta, K.Gopal, L. Lyengar, S.S. Dhindsa and S.C. Parija, 2001.

Report of Study on H2S Test For Drinking Water. UNICEF., New Delhi.Mark, D.S.

Pfaender, 2002. Evaluation of H2S Method for Detection of Faecal Contamination of Drinking Water.

WHO/SDE/WSH/02.08, Geneva.Pathak, S.P. Efficiency of modified H2S test for detection of fecal contamination in water. Assess., 108: 59-65. Pillai, J., K. H2S Paper strip method: A bacteriological test for faecal coliforms in drinking water at various temperatures.

Technol., 40: 85-90.Rijal, G.K., R.S. Fujioka and C.A. Evaluation of the hydrogen sulphide bacterial test. A simple test to determine the hygienic quality of drinking water.

Microbiol., pp: 354.Sivaborvorn, 1988. Development of Simple Test for Bacteriological Quality of Drinking Water (Water Quality Control Southeast Asia).

Department of Sanitary Engineering, Mahidol University, International Development Research Center, Canada.Tambekar, D.H., N.B. Hirulkar, S.R. Gulhane, Y.S.

Banginwar and N.S. Bhajipale, 2006. Efficacy of rapid H2S test for detection of fecal contamination in drinking water.

Sci., 9: 139-144. Venkobachar, C., D. Talreja and I. Lyengar, 1994.

Assessment of bacteriological quality using a modified H2S strip test. Aqua, 43: 311-314.WHO., 2002. Indicators (Draft Documents) OECD. World Health Organization, Geneva.

Sources of water.1.Sources Of Water By: Himanshu Bahl himanshubahl3@gmail.com.About Water. 97% of the water on the Earth is salt water.

However, only 3% percent is fresh water; slightly over 2/3 of this is frozen in glaciers and polar ice caps. The remaining unfrozen freshwater is found mainly as groundwater, with only a small fraction present above ground or in the air.

Fresh water is a renewable resource.Sources of Fresh water1. Surface water2.

Frozen water3. Ground water4. Rain water.Surface waterSurface water is water in a river, lake or fresh water wetland.Surface water is naturally replenished by precipitation andnaturally lost through discharge to the oceans and evaporation.Frozen waterSeveral schemes have been proposed to make use of icebergs as a watersource, however to date this has only been done for novelty purposes. TheHimalayas, which are often called 'The Roof of the World', contain some ofthe most extensive and rough high altitude areas on Earth as well as thegreatest area of glaciers and permafrost outside of the poles.Ground water.Rain water.Uses Of Water IndustrialAgriculture Household.Distribution of water on Earth.How do people use Water Resources? Divide Household Personal Use Recreational activities.Washing dishes.Washing the teeth.Go to the pool.Fill the car with.Drinking water.Go to the beach.water.Take a shower.Walk in the pool for.Watering the plants.Going to the recovering health.Putting out the fire bathroom.Skiing in the mountains.Give water for the.Walk in the pool for.Fish in the lakes.cows recovering health.Play with a ball in the.Watering the grass river.Washing the car.Surfeit in the ocean. Picture: Picture: Picture:.Proposals: How to conserve waterIf you want to learn how to conserver water and protecting the environment, learning to conserve water is a great way to make a positive impact. A four-minute shower may not sound like much, but in reality can cost up to 40 gallons.

But dont worry-there are ways to change water-hogging household habits into leaner, greener activities.Water Conservation Tips. Run your dishwasher for only full loads. Turn off the tap when you brush your teeth. Check your faucets and toilets for leaks. Take shorter showers. Water your lawn in the morning.

Use a cover on your pool. Wash your car with a nozzle on the hose.